"What are the Qualities of Games" written by Ian Schreiber reexamines the definition of what a game is, takes a look at the elements of a game and the relevance of a critical analysis. We see many repeating themes when examining different definitions of games. Some of these commonalities mention that games have rules, conflict, goals, decision-making and an unknown result. Games are an alternate universe outside of reality, a simulation, voluntary and more. The author sees these as "formal elements" because they can be defined. According to "Challenges by Game Designers" written by Brenda Brathwaite, these components are "atoms" because they are the smallest pieces of a game that are able to be singled out and examined individually.
The atomic elements of games cannot be boiled down to a single definition. However, by looking at a number of different opinions, commonalities can be identified just like the definition of games. These recurring themes can then be considered by game designers when creating games.
- Players; What is the minimum amount of players for your game?
A critical analysis is examining a game in an unbiased manner. Critically analysing games is very useful when discussing games because it helps game designers comprehend how each component works together to impact a player's experience. Critical analysis is also beneficial in helping game designers examine their own games for improvement.
The author recommends a three-step process for critical analysis. These include outlining the game's formal elements, how these elements interact during gameplay and understanding the reason why the designers chose these elements.
There are a number of questions you must ask yourself when critically analysing your game. Such as, what obstacles will the players' face? How do the players influence each other? Who is the game's target audience? and more.
Games are systems and require their formal elements in order to create actual games.
"Game Design Research" written by Anna Kultima from the University of Tampere, analyses the concept of games studies, research, design and design research. Design and design research are not typically examined in papers within the academic field of game research. Similarly, there is a lack of discussion between game studies and games research which should be changed. Our understanding of game design can be developed by viewing and understanding game studies as design research.
In 2008, Staffan Björk was looking to find "an axis mundi" for game research. He came to the conclusion that the research areas of interest within the field of game research can be defined through the game concepts of games, gamers and gaming.
Also in 2008, Frans Mäyrä formed the idea that games research exists within the way a player interacts with a game. In his book which introduces you to game studies, this concept is categorised into three sections; the study of games, the study of players and study of the contexts of games and players.
Games design oriented by humanities and social sciences has noticeably increased in the development of the academic communities, such as DiGRA journals like Games Studies. In 2001, Espen Aarseth stated that games studies should be a standalone academic structure because it cannot be reduced to any of the existing fields. There has been numerous types of game related studies from a variety of academic perspectives since then. Moreover, various game research conferences and other academic venues have been constructed.
Aarseth mentions the diversity of qualifications from the different people who enter the field of game studies. These include anthropology, sociology, narratology, semiotics and film studies. However, Sebastian Deterding discusses how interdisciplinary researchers can face challenges due to incompatible viewpoints and approaches. Deterding continues by stating that game studies fits into the category of narrow inter-discipline because the field can be thought of as condensing into a number of sub-communities.
Deterding's observations are mainly based on his personal experiences and discussions. However, a survey administered to DiGRA, ECREA and ICA by Mäyrä, Van Looy and Quandt found that there is no single disciplinary field that leads the organising of the academic identity of contemporary games researchers. The research on games and play is diverse and multidisciplinary. Although Deterding is successful in breaking down the concepts of the inter-discipline of game studies, he fails in acquiring the vision of the wider spectrum of "game design." Design orientation is one of his ideas to positively developing the inter-discipline. However, this implies that Deterding views game design as a type of problem-solving activity. The hope of game studies becoming an interdisciplinary effort is seen as a contributing aspect that affects societal influence of game research and education.
"Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals" written by Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman talks about the rules, play and culture within game design. This book was created for designers and is popular among the young field of researchers but is also possibly misunderstood by the research community because of the industry's varying epistemic needs and the conceptions between inspiration and foundation. Their original concept of "second order design" can be seen as one of their most cited notions. This is to outline the indirect nature of designing games because "a game designer designs the rules of the games directly but designs the player's experience only indirectly." In 2012, Zimmerman says that "Perhaps design is always about second-order problems" in a discussion on Twitter.
"The Art of Game Design" written by Jesse Schell contains similarities to "Rules of Play." However, Schell discusses the experience of a game and a game's elements, the process of development and the designer's self-reflection. Whereas, Salen and Zimmerman focuses on the artefact and player experience. Schell's book describes his varying and personal perception of design. From an academic point of view, Schell's account of game design may seem flawed because of the lack of systematic views and epistemic transparency. However, design work involves a system of designers whose values may clash with one another. Therefore, game designers need to learn new design principles and adapt according to their projects. The design theorist, Herbert Simon states that design is the "transformation of existing conditions into preferred ones."
Kari Kuttii, a design theorist, sheds light on the difficulties of academic understanding of the importance of local, particular and timely knowledge through analysing the differences between science and design. He believes that the scientific aspect is unable to comprehend such knowledge and therefore, design must find a way to grow and develop on its own. Another design theorist, Gui Bonsiepe, believes that designing is an independent activity at first and unbothered by the concept of design science. Accounts of game design face a lot of controversy because the field of game design is constantly changing.
Game studies use the early conceptions of design books influenced by the industry. This may be because of the lack of an academic counterpart for game theories. Academic critical approaches towards game design books might be a test in pushing the theories presented by experienced designers in the direction of the academic accounts. However, books written about design tools, processes, methods around game studies are increasing which is not a surprising development. Lucienne Blessing and Amaresh Chakrabarti believe that design research has progressed through three phases known as, experiential, intellectual and experimental/empirical. The experiential phase covers senior designers documenting their experiences of the design process and its results. The intellectual phase a basis for design along with methodologies, principles and methods are established. Lastly, the experimental/empirical phase includes using empirical studies in order to collect data and comprehend how designers do their jobs and what methods and tools impact their work.
Although there are various meanings for game design, there is a lot of room for dissection and theoretical, empirical and experimental approaches that can be taken to examine the different areas of game design.
Nigel Cross stated that the idea to "scientise" design came about in the 1920s and reemerged in the 1960s during the design methods movement. The Conference on Design Methods was considered to be the launch of design methodology in the academic field in 1962. While the 1960s was regarded as the "design science decade." Cross also mentions how the phrase "design science" means a "search for a single method of design." Whereas, the term "science of design" is the "study of designing as an academic endeavour."
Keiichi Sato believes that design research is either indicates the practice of expanding information for a design project or it implies the practice of developing a generalised and organised body of knowledge which would be academic knowledge. Sato categorises academic design research into theoretical research, methodological research, experimental research, field research and case studies.
Gui Bonsiepe analyses endogenous and exogenous design research. Within the field of design endogenous design research is initiated spontaneously. Whereas, exogenous design research about the design as an object or scientific exploration. Bonsiepe hopes that endogenous design research will someday will achieve a more general level of knowledge like exogenous design research.
Endogenous and exogenous design research are both important epistemic culture within game research. Game research takes place within interdisciplinary communities and among other disciplines. Game professionals outside of the game academia is another important epistemic community. A large number of game design projects look for way to adopt new technologies, improve existing technologies, comprehend new and existing user groups, and to adjust their design in a way that would attract opportunities.
Using game design research as a theoretical background within the field of game studies for future research would add depth to the problems within the game industry that have already been examined.
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